Transcript for the Piece Audio version of A Small Southern Town: The Nation's Capital In Slave Times

From W-A-M-U at American University in Washington, this is ?A Small Southern Town: The Nation?s Capitol In Slave Times.? I?m Richard Paul. In this program ... one family?s break for freedom in the Escape To The Pearl.

When they teach you American history in school, there?s always a heavy emphasis on ?Mass?
movements ? Revolutions, Wars ... the drive West. What they don?t usually focus on though is that each mass movement begins, ends and is sustained by INDIVIDUAL choices. Will I be better off as an British subject? Should I risk moving West? Should OUR family remain slaves? It?s that final choice we?re going to hear about now ... The story of one Washington family -- The Edmonsons -- who were part of one of the largest recorded mass-escapes of slaves in American history.

The parents were named Paul and Amelia. Paul was a free man. Amelia was a slave. And under the law, if a free black married a slave, all the children were born slave. Six of those children were part of this mass-escape attempt ... Samuel, Emily, Mary, Richard, John, and Ephraim. They worked as butlers, valets, cooks and skullery maids in the finest homes of Washington. On the evening of April 15, 1848 they made their bid for freedom aboard a ship called The Pearl .. docked near the wharf at 7th Street, Southwest.

In our story you?ll hear Samuel?s voice. His account comes from the book Fugitives Of The Pearl that was written by a another Edmonson family member in the 1930s. You?ll also hear the first-person accounts of the Captain of The Pearl, Daniel Drayton. ... From an abolitionist newspaper editor ? Gamliel Bailey ? who was blamed for the escape. And from a reporter for The New York Herald, who covered the riot that broke out as a result of the escape.

Our story will be jumping back and forth between the past and the present. And our present-day commentary will come from freelance writer Mary Kay Ricks. She and I walked around the city and talked about the escape to The Pearl in places that were important to various turns of the story.

So now, we go back and forth in history to tell the story of The Escape To The Pearl.

Music (No More Auction Block)

NEWSPAPER ACCOUNT: During the whole of Sunday, Monday, and yesterday very great excitement has prevailed in this city and Georgetown, arising out of the fact that citizens of the two places had been deprived of their servants, and its being ascertained that they had
been taken on board a suspicious vessel which had brought wood to this city, and left the wharf at the foot of Seventh Street on Saturday night.

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SAMUEL EMONDSON: I left mother-and-father's at 18th and L, and ... by striking side-long across the fields ... within a very few moments I found myself at the side door entrance of the residence at 22nd and G, where Emily was employed. I called her softly by name several times, and failing to attract attention, pitched a small clod ofdirt in such a way as to allow it to drop over the top of the window blinds and strike the windowpane. Almost on the instant the sash was raised and before she could speak, I gave a soft note ofwarning and then whispered quickly:"It's your brother Sam, come right down. I'm going to take you somewhere."

MUSIC UP

MARY KAY RICKS: On the evening of April 15, 1848 slaves started assembling from around the city. From Alexandria, from Washington, from Georgetown. ... the 77 slaves ... were quietly and carefully making their way to The Pearl.

SAMUEL EMONDSON: I knew that Emily -- good sister that she was -- would not say all that was in her heart. But I could tell the feeling dominant within her was one of uneasiness. However much she wished to be hopeful and encourage me by the exhibition of cheerfulness, I knew her bosom was heavy with fear and foreboding. We reached Mary's home in a brief space. ... At Emily's call she appeared for an instant at the window, and then as a precaution against noise, threw out her shoes and shortly thereafter, presented herself at the gate with a bundle in her hand.

MARY KAY RICKS: Three of those slaves came from the Edmondson family and we can follow their journey through the city. It was a light rain. ... they came down over the old Washington canal which is now Constitution Ave with the archives nearby and the Smithsonian. They came on to the Mall. And on their right they would have seen the beginnings of the Smithsonian Institution. They would have seen the barges on the canal that brought stone from the quarry 20 miles north of here. Over to their left the Capitol building with the old wooden dome ... still there

MUSIC UP (Over My Head I See Freedom In The Air)

SAMUEL EMONDSON: We started for the ship, making only one stop at my suggestion ... a bake shop on F Street, where we purchased five or six dozen buns, and some other eatables as a sort of emergency fund against possible hardship. Down, then through 12th Street we took our way. Then across Pennsylvania Avenue, and out into the region beyond the old canal, known as "The Island." A slight rain was now falling, making our progress a little uncomfortable. However, it also lessened the chances of our being detected.

RICHARD PAUL: So now tell me now a bit about Samuel Edmonson and the rest of his party. Who was he here along with?

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MARY KAY RICKS: Well he was coming down to the Pearl along with two of his sisters Emily and Mary 13, 15 years old. Two other brothers were meeting them at the ship for a total of 6 Edmondson siblings. ... Interestingly, this is not the first time in the Edmonson family that an escape was attempted. Their older brother Hamilton had attempted escape and they full-well knew the consequences. Hamilton was caught and he was sold south and so the family had real cause for worry.

SAMUEL EMONDSON: Emily said to me "Oh, Sammy wouldn't it be terrible if some one should tell on us?""Of course it would," I told her. "But I don't think anyone could be mean enough for that.". "I hope not," she said. Emily was so brave! "It would be a fearful blow to mother and father, and you know nothing could save us from the slave pen and the southern market then.""That's true," I told her. "But we must have faith and pray to the Lord, for we are his children; and whatever comes, let us say as mother has always taught us, 'Thy will be done.'"

MARY KAY RICKS: Why did they take the risk? Hamilton perhaps by example, even though he was caught. But at this time in Washington, the number of free blacks coming in from Maryland, coming even from Virginia -- was greatly increased. The 1850 census showed that there were 8,000 free blacks to 2,000 slaves. And the slavery proponents who were fearful of the free blacks as an example were right. I think they DID influence the slaves. They didn't want to wait any longer.

RICHARD PAUL: So these 77 men, women and children came from across the city and from Alexandria and they ended up where? Down on the waterfront where was the pearl docked?

MARY KAY RICKS: Well the Pearl had come into the 7th Street wharf . ... It registered, as it was required to do and it slipped a little bit south ... according to the captain on that ship Captain Drayton. And there they awaited their cargo.

MUSIC UP (Old Ship Of Zion)

SAMUEL EMONDSON: The long trip over the rough and uneven roadway came to an end at length as we had reached the Southwest waterside. There we saw the ship ... the object of our most eager thoughts ... a colored light displayed at bow and stern, but otherwise shrouded in mist and shadow.

MUSIC UP

RICHARD PAUL: We're on the DC waterfront now. Around 7th street. And it was somewhere along here that the pearl was docked.

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MARY KAY RICKS: It was about 2 days before. The Pearl was due to set sail on Saturday, April the 15th. Captain Drayton had hired a boat...hired a mate, picked up some wood so they had a purpose to come in they registered here at the 7th Street Wharf (up inflection)and in fact, because it was so busy and bustling, Captain Drayton and Captain Sayers who owned the boat headed about a half-a-mile down river and they actually found a little wharf that was tucked underneath a hill so it wasn't readily visible. And that's where they awaited their cargo.

DRAYTON: Something past ten o?clock, I went on board, and directed English to cast off the fastenings and to get ready to make sail. Pretty soon Sayres came on board. It was a dead calm, and we were obliged to get the boat out to get the vessel?s head round. After dropping down a half a mile or so, we encountered the tide making up the river; and, as there was still no wind, we were obliged to anchor. Here we lay in a dead calm till about daylight. The wind then began to breeze up lightly from the northward, when we got up the anchor and made sail.

RICHARD PAUL: Where were they headed ultimately?

MARY KAY RICKS: Well they needed to get North. They needed to get to Frenchtown, New Jersey. They're on the Potomac there's only one way to do it and that's to head south (tight)so think how dangerous this is really how scary it is because you're heading into Virginia territory. And although Maryland and Virginia were both slave territories -- as was the District of Columbia -- Virginia had a more ominous feel to it .

DRAYTON: As the sun rose, we passed Alexandria. I then went into the hold for the first time, and there found my passengers pretty thickly stowed. They consisted of men and women, in pretty equal proportions, with a number of boys and girls, and two small children.

RICHARD PAUL: Do we know whether Drayton got involved in lot of this because he was an abolitionist or did he get involved in a lot of this because it was easy money?

MARY KAY RICKS: It was probably a mix. He was not known to be an abolitionist. He was hired. He was paid. He was paid 100 dollars and he needed the money .But he had done it before and he was ready to risk this and it was a substantial risk We know of one other boat captain at the time who was caught and was branded "SS" on his hand for "Slave Stealer".

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SAMUEL EDMONDSON: Captain Drayton called a number of us men into his cabin about this time and talked with us concerning their undertaking and future prospects, should success attend them. "Friends," he said, " ... we haven't made as much progress as I had hoped for, but even at that it seems to me we ought to be pretty safe from harm, unless something very unusual occurs. Had the weather been more favorable, we should now be nearing the open sea instead of being still here almost under the shadow of the city." Now you must have stout hearts and keep the women folks cheered up; and if all goes well, Monday night ought to find us tied up all safe and snug at Arch Street wharf. There are friends there who are expecting you and who will see that you are comfortable until your future has been in some way provided for.

DRAYTON: The wind kept increasing and hauling to the westward. Off Ft. Washington we had to make two stretches, but the rest of the way we run before the wind.

RICHARD PAUL: Now the weather didn't cooperate.

MARY KAY RICKS: From the start the weather was a problem ... The wind did not pick up until day-break And they actually started moving right across from Alexandria, Virginia where some of the slave owners were probably waking looking for their breakfast, wondering why there was no fire and noticing that their slaves ... were gone.

DRAYTON: As we approached the mouth of the Potomac, the wind hauled to the north, and blew with such stiffness as would make it impossible for us to go up the bay, according to our original plan. Under these circumstances, apprehending a pursuit from Washington, I urged Sayres to go to sea, with the intention of reaching the Delaware by the outside passage. But he objected that the vessel was not fit to go outside (which was true enough), and that the bargain was to go to Frenchtown. Having reached Point Lookout, at the mouth of the river, and not being able to persuade Sayres to go to sea, we came to anchor in Cornfield harbor, just under Point Lookout, a shelter usually sought by bay-craft encountering contrary winds when in that neighborhood.

RICHARD PAUL: And that's where they were caught.

MARY KAY RICKS: I'm afraid they went to sleep, hoping to get a fresh start in the morning and by then, slave owners and outraged citizens in Georgetown and Washington jumped into a boat with steam power -- they didn't have to worry about the wind -- and they made it down and they found the schooner with everyone asleep inside. And they boarded it.

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DRAYTON: I knew nothing more till, waking suddenly, I heard the noise of a steamer blowing off steam alongside of us. I knew at once that we were taken. The loud shouts and trampling of many feet overhead proved that our assailants were numerous. One of them lifted the hatch a little, and cried out, ?Niggers, by God!? An exclamation to which the others responded with three cheers, and by banging the buts of their muskets against the deck.

MUSIC UP (Joshua F?t The Battle Of Jericho)

SAMUEL EDMONDSON: With ever increasing volume, we heard ... hurled back and forth on the rushing wind ... the wild huzzahs as of a hundred voices. "We've got 'em! We've got 'em!" rang throughout the ship from stem to stern, inspiring a panic of wildest fear among the women and children below and filling with the strange, dull pain of disappointment even the hearts of the bravest of us men. A perfect frenzy of hysterical weeping, praying and fainting among the woen followed, while we ... desperate ... ready to fight and die if need be for our protection and liberty ... realize our utter impotence. For without arms or means of defense of any kind, we were indeed at the mercy of our captors.

DRAYTON: A lantern was called for, to read the name of the vessel; and it being ascertained to be the Pearl, a number of men came to the cabin-door, and called for Captain Drayton. I was in no great hurry to stir; but a length rose from my berth, saying that I considered myself their prisoner, and that I expected to be treated as such. While I was dressing, rather too slowly for the impatience of those outside, a sentinel, who had been stationed at the cabin-door, followed every motion of mine with his gun, which he kept pointed at me, in great apprehension, apparently, lest I should suddenly seize some dangerous weapon and make at him. As I came out of the cabin-door, two of them seized me, took me on board the steamer, and tied me; and they did the same with Sayres. The black people were left on board the Pearl, which the steamer took in tow, and then proceeded up the river.

SAMUEL EDMONDSON: Richard, as the senior member of our captive crowd, led the way on deck, followed closely by Ephraim, John and myself. Just as we reached the top of the steps, Ephraim, jumped several feet, landing in the midst of a squad of his captors and shouted at the top of his voice: "Do yourselves no harm, we are all here." These words, which were first uttered by the Apostle Paul to console and reassure his frightened jailers, had now a most unlooked for effect. Ephraim was young, muscular and of splendid proportions, and seeing him thus by the poor light of several smoky lanterns, with flashing eyes and swinging arms, leaping into their midst, followed by others whose numbers were unknown, some of our captors were overcome with a feeling of terror ... dropped their guns and scurried away to find shelter among the dark shadows of the ship. By the time the rest of us had reached the deck, the shock of Ephraim's strange appearance had somewhat worn off, and at the moment we stepped out of the hatchway, a sharp blow, which but for a sudden lurch of the vessel would have laid me low, took me on the side of the bead and ... I later learned ... spent its force against the back of John's.

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MUSIC UP

RICHARD PAUL: So they were caught by the Salem -- they were dragged back to shore. What was the scene when they got back here to the 7th Street Wharf?

MARY KAY RICKS: Well first of all, it's believed that they decided not to bring them in at night but they spent the night just across from Ft. Washington so that they could arrive with some attention the next morning .And attention is exactly what they got.

DRAYTON: As we passed Alexandria, we were all ordered on deck, and exhibited to the mob collected on the wharves to get a sight of us, who signified their satisfaction by three cheers. When we landed at the steamboat-wharf in Washington, which is a mile or more from Pennsylvania Avenue, and in a remote part of the city, but few people had yet assembled. We were marched up in a long procession, Sayres and myself being placed at the head of it, guarded by a man on each side, and then the Negroes.

SAMUEL EDMONDSON: We Edmonson boys were the first to be brought off, following us came the other men of the captives, chained two and two together, while the Captain, mate, and crew made up a section between us and the women. It was only with the greatest difficulty that the crowd was held back to permit our passage. And when Captain Drayton and his crew came in view the mob broke all restraint, and for a few moments it seemed that these poor fellows ... were in imminent danger of losing their lives

MARY KAY RICKS: Seventy-seven slaves had almost escaped from this city. No other escape at this time had involved so many slaves (tight) and they were truly shocked. And very angry.

DRAYTON: As we went along, the mob began to increase; and, as we passed Gannon?s slave-pen, a slave trader, armed with a knife, rushed out, and, with horrid imprecations, made a pass at me, which was very near finding its way through my body. Instead of being arrested, as he ought to have been, this slave-dealer was politely informed that I was in the hands of the law, to which he replied, ?Damn the law! ? I have three Negroes, and I will give them all for one thrust at this dammed scoundrel!? And he followed along, waiting his opportunity to repeat the blow. The crowd, by this time, was greatly increased. We met an immense mob of several thousand persons coming down 4? Street with the avowed intention of carrying us up before the capitol, and making an exhibition of us there. The noise and confusion was very great. It seemed as if the time for the lynching had come. When almost up to Pennsylvania Avenue, a rush was made upon us, ? ?Lynch them! Lynch them! The Dammed villains!? and other such cries resounded on all sides.

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MARY KAY RICKS: And the scene had become so threatening that they had to interrupt the walk and take the two captains Drayton and Sayers and put them in a hack. They put 'em in a cab. And took them to the city jail in a cab. At this point, the slaves were still marched manacled up the street.

MUSIC UP (A Civil War-era march)

GAMLIEL BAILEY: While we are writing this, at 10 o?clock at night, a crowd of men and boys is collected about the office; many stones have been thrown; but the police are striving to do their duty.

RICHARD PAUL: Well we?re downtown now, we?re in front of the National Portrait Gallery and across the street from the M.C.I. Center and the reason that we?re here is because: as the slaves were being marched to from 7th street up to the jail on Pennsylvania Ave., a crowd was gathering at a building that used to be here because the escape to the Pearl resulted in a riot that began right here. Tell us about that.

MARY KAY RICKS: Yes, this became known as the Washington riot of 1848 (up inflection) and you had a very excited crowd. And when the two Captains were taken off to jail, they really didn?t have anyplace to focus their anger. So they immediately seized upon the only abolitionist newspaper in town because surely, the people behind this had to be abolitionists.

GAMLIEL BAILEY: The rumor that the office of the National Era was concerned in the escape of the slaves in the Pearl is utterly groundless. This its originators knows, but they are willing to use it to inflame popular feeling against our press. Whatever we do, we do openly. We cherish an instinctive abhorrence of any movement which would involved us in the necessity of concealments, strategy or trickery of any kind.

MARY KAY RICKS: So they came to the area near 7th & F Northwest to the National Era. The editor, Mr. Bailey was a moderate abolitionist. But nonetheless he was an abolitionist. So the crowds began to gather.

THE NEW YORK HERALD: Mr. E. B. Robinson took the rostrum. He said that the feelings of the public had been outraged. An insult had been offered to the community. The public authorities had been derelict in duty. Why did not the grand jury indict the Era as a nuisance? These moderate scoundrels are the worst kind of scoundrels. The press should not be suffered to exits. This was met from the mob, with cries of ?Give it to ?em Bull? and ?Down with the Era.?

RICHARD PAUL: Because they blamed him for the slaves escaping.

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MARY KAY RICKS: Well, it had to be him, surely it did not occur to them that there could be -- that the organizers could be African-Americans ? the crowd started throwing bricks through the windows.

THE NEW YORK HERALD: We saw a sudden movement round the corner, toward the doomed establishment. We ran, to be at the smashing of forms, galleys and power presses. We wanted to see how it could ?be did.? A stone was thrown at the window, and ting-el-ling went the glass. ?Fight, Fight!? The crowd began to retreat and leave the combatants the field. It appeared that Captain Goddard and his guard had rolled back the human tide that was setting in against the passage door.

RICHARD PAUL: How big a crowd was this?

MARY KAY RICKS: It eventually number a thousand over the course of 3 days. They demanded ? a very concrete demand ? we want your printing press dismantled or we will come in and pull it down ourselves..

THE NEW YORK HERALD: Mr. Key, the United States District Attorney and the son of the deceased author of ?The Star Spangled Banner,? ascended the horse trough in front of a grocery, and asked the crowd what they were doing there, and what they wanted. Was it to destroy property ? to attack an unoffending house? The crowd answered they wanted to destroy the press. ?Gentleman,? Mr. Key said ? Fellow citizens, you know that I am no abolitionist. I call upon you as freemen, as friends of law and order, to forego your designs. The law will remedy any existing evil. The Constitution of your country will give you justice.

MARY KAY RICKS: Mr. Bailey ? a man of not great stature ? but I think of great bravery ? came out and faced the crowd.

GAMLIEL BAILEY: About ten o?clock, some one or two hundred men, under the leadership of a man called Captain Thomas, slipped away, unobserved by the police, and paid me a visit. They thundered at the door and demanded my appearance. I opened it, went out on the step, and they asked whether I was the Editor of the Era? ?I am --what do you wish?? Captain Thomas, acting as spokesman, said that they were a company of Virginians and Marylanders ? there were going to do things up in their own style. They wished to put my press into the canal and give me a coat of tar and feathers.

RICHARD PAUL: This turned out to be a fairly large riot, didn?t it?

MARY KAY RICKS: Yes. It was very alarming to people in Washington. There were people who didn?t want this kind of attention.

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DR. HOUSTON - THE NEW YORK HERALD: In the course of the day we learn the Postmaster General visited the President and informed him of the state of things. He immediately sent for some of the city authorities and proffered whatever aid they might deem expedient to indicate. A Cabinet meeting was also held, and orders were issued prohibiting all persons connected with the Federal government from participating in the unrest.

MARY KAY RICKS: President Polk immediately gathered his cabinet and said, ?I want you to get the Federal clerks of this town and send them out into the crowd.? He more or less deputized them. ?And I want them to be a calming influence.?

MUSIC UP (Nobody Knows The Trouble I?ve Seen)

SAMUEL EDMONSON: we brothers were handcuffed and with the girls taken by our new owner in carriages and driven to Alexandria. Here it was that they first made the acquaintance of a ?Georgia Pen? and spent the remaining hours of the night alone in a large, dark room, totally devoid of the most ordinary comforts, praying amid sobs and tears for the daylight - which it seemed to us would never come.

MUSIC UP

RICHARD PAUL: Now while the riot was going on, what became of the Edmondson family members who had been on board the Pearl?

MARY KAY RICKS: Well at this time, as was traditional in a situation like this, slave traders made their way to the jail and began purchasing the slaves.

SAMUEL EDMONSON: Our stay here, was to me, the most miserable of all that unhappy time. It seemed to me, but for the habit of prayer (which was a kind of second nature to all us Edmonson children) I might have become crazed, for I taxed himself with the feeling of personal responsibility for all the ills of my brothers and especially my sisters ... who I forced to see, day after day for more than a month, performing unaccustomed tasks and in some instances those of a most revolting nature.

MARY KAY RICKS: they were moved to Baltimore and after 2 weeks, they were put on a Brig called The Union on a trip to New Orleans which is The slave trading center for the Deep South..

SAMUEL EDMONSON: The voyage to New Orleans covered a period of seven days, during which we experienced much suffering. Counting my sisters, there were eleven women in the party ... all of whom were forced to live in one tiny compartment. We men -- numbering thirty five or forty, were in another not much larger.

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RICHARD PAUL: The Edmonson family members were finally freed. As I understand it the parents were able to enlist the help of John Jacob Astor and Henry Ward Beecher and over time the family was finally freed.

MARY KAY RICKS: Yes. It took some time and some work. The family was able to obtain 900 dollars from John Jacob Astor just about the time the ship was leaving Baltimore. It was too late. They couldn?t get anyone off and the sum would only purchase one slave. So all of the Edmondsons went to New Orleans.

SAMUEL EDMONSON: Meetings for prayer were nightly held in which the burden of our petition was that the winds (which seemed in league with our better fortunes) might shape the course to New York instead of New Orleans.

MARY KAY RICKS: Richard ? he was an Edmonson brother ? he was able to leave because of the money that was paid they just couldn?t let him off before the ship left. He was able to find the oldest brother ? Hamilton ? the one who had made the first escape and had been sold south. And he worked with his brother Richard to free the others. Samuel was purchased by an Englishman and worked as a butler to him. And the girls were eventually brought back to escape Yellow Fever which had hit New Orleans and they were returned to the Washington area.

RICHARD PAUL: Why is this story significant?

MARY KAY RICKS: because it was another act that raised the consciousness of people. And you have to remember, that these were not slaves who were experiencing the worst conditions in the country. These were slaves who worked in the finest homes of Washington -- if you will, the highest you could go as a slave. ... And they said, ?No. We want freedom. And we will not stop, no matter what the consequence.?

MUSIC UP (Oh Freedom)

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Mary Kay Ricks is a freelance writer who also runs ?Tour DC? which offers historical tours in Georgetown. The voice of Samuel Edmonson was provided by James White. Daniel Drayton was played by Jamie Zemerel. Graham Griffith was Gamliel Bailey, the editor of The New Era; and John Holt was the voice of The New York Herald. All the first person accounts of the riot came from The New Era and from The Herald. Daniel Drayton?s words came from his autobiography. Samuel Edmonson?s narrative was taken from a book called: Fugitives of the Pearl by John Paynter. John Paynter was the grandson of Samuel Edmonson?s oldest sister Elizabeth. The book was drawn from Paynter?s research and -- to a large extent, from interviews he did with his aunts and uncles. Fugitives of the Pearl was published in 1930. And we need to say that we did take some artistic license. John Paynter wrote his book in the third person. We changed that to put the words back in Samuel Edmonson?s mouth.

Our presentation on The Pearl leaves a number of questions un-answered and ? to tie up those loose ends ? I?m joined now by James Horton the Benjamin Banneker Professor of American Studies and History at George Washington University. Professor Horton is also the co author of "In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Protest, and Community Among Northern Free Blacks, 1700 1860".

(INTERVIEW FOLLOWS, BUT THERE?S NO TRANSCRIPT)

CLOSE: James Horton the Benjamin Banneker Professor of American Studies and History at George Washington University. Professor Horton is also the co author of "In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Protest, and Community Among Northern Free Blacks, 1700 1860".

Mary Kay Ricks account of the Escape to the Pearl originally appeared in the Horizon section of the Washington Post.

We had help in the production of this program from Mychalene Jumpaldi of Washington, DC Historical Society - which is in possession of one of the few known existing copies of the book Fugitives Of The Pearl.

We would also like to thank the staff of the American University computer center?s New Media Division and Sterling Scroggins, Assistant at the American University Music Library .... Fact- checking and other consulting support was provided by Professors Alan Kraut, Bernice Johnson Reagon, and Roger Brown of the American University History Department.

The engineers for this program were Bruce Youngblood, Karen McManus and Kenneth Mason.

The program comes to you from W-A-M-U at American University in Washington, DC. For W-A-M-U, I?m Richard Paul.

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